This article analyses the transformation of scientific perspectives on fathers and fatherhood. The scientific study of issues related to fathers and fatherhood in developed foreign countries began in the mid-20th century and is associated with the proliferation of family institution problems: increasing divorces, remarriages, stepfamilies, consensual unions, and the rising birth rates of children born outside of marriage. In Russia, this issue began to attract researchers' attention in the 1990s, as similar trends were observed in our country. It was found that the decline in fathers' authority and their reduced contribution to child socialisation lead to problems within families and socio-psychological difficulties for their children.

During the 1970s and 1980s, it was discovered that a father's contribution to a child's development is irreplaceable because he serves as a role model for boys and as a future partner model for girls. Family work performed by both mothers and fathers complements each other.

Thus, the significance of fatherhood in terms of parent-child relationships and its contribution to a child's upbringing were emphasised. In foreign countries, social policies began to change to support fathers. From the 1990s to 2010s, researchers noted the spread of the so-called "new" or "involved" or "responsible" fatherhood, characterised by fathers' active involvement in child rearing from birth, a redistribution of labour responsibilities in favour of family duties, and a father's engagement in the daily affairs of the family. It was revealed that involved fathers have stronger and warmer relationships with their children. However, it is acknowledged that there are still not enough involved fathers.

During their research, scientists have come to the idea that paternal qualities are, on one hand, developed through the process of socialisation of future fathers, and on the other hand, there are natural, nature-inherent aspects of paternal behaviour. Paternal qualities are to a significant extent constructed by society based on the value orientations that are considered significant in that particular society during a specific historical period. Currently, the biosocial concept is the most common research approach to issues related to fathers and fatherhood.

 father, fatherhood, family, child, socialization

1. Avdeeva A. V. «Vovlechennoye ottsovstvo» v sovremennoy Rossii: strategii uchastiya v ukhode za det'mi ["Involved fatherhood" in modern Russia: strategies of participation in child care]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2012: 11: 95–104 (in Russ.). EDN: PGXURD.
2. Antonov A. I., Borisov V. A. [Dynamics of the population of Russia in the XXI century and priorities of demographic policy]. Moscow, Klyuch-S, 2006: 191 (in Russ.).
3. Antonov A. I., Sorokin S. A. The fate of the family in Russia of the XXI century: Reflections on family policy, on the possibility of countering the decline of the family and depopulation. Moscow, Grail, 2000: 414 (in Russ.).
4. Bezrukova O. N. Models of Parenthood and Parental Potential: Intergenerational Analysis. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2014: 9: 85–97 (in Russ.).
5. Bezrukova O. N. Ottsovstvo v transformiruyushchemsya obshchestve: ozhidaniya materey i praktiki ottsov [Fatherhood in a Transforming Society: Mothers' Expectations and Fathers' Practices]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2013: 11: 118–130 (in Russ.). EDN: RFXAPT.
6. Bezrukova O. N. The values of children and parenthood: Intergenerational dynamics. Sotsiologicheskiy zhurnal, 2017: 23: 1: 88–110 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.19181/socjour.2017.23.1.5003; EDN: YKWDYV.
7. Bezrukova O. N. Values of parenthood: structure, types, resources. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2016: 3: 118–127 (in Russ.). EDN: VXVZTP.
8. Bezrukova O. N., Samoylova V. A. Maternal Gatekeeping in Russia: Young Fathers about Mothers and the Barriers to Access Children after Divorce. Monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya: ekonomicheskiye i sotsial'nyye peremeny, 2020: 3: 463–498 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.14515/monitoring.2020.3.1680; EDN: AUROFO.
9. Bezrukova O. N., Samoilova V. A. Paternity leave in Russia: dreams or reality? Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2017: 7: 116–125 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.7868/S0132162517070133; EDN: YZLIXN.
10. Bezrukova O. N., Samoilova V. A. ’Eager dads’ and ’Dads against their will’, or why russian dads are reluctant to go on parental leave. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2019: 7: 90–101 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.31857/S013216250005796-8; EDN: XALPGZ.
11. Borisenko Yu. V., Portnova A. G. Problema ottsovstva v sovremennom obshchestve [The problem of fatherhood in modern society]. Voprosy psikhologii, 2006: 3: 122–130 (in Russ.). EDN: QCBPZP.
12. Borisenko Yu. V., Portnova A. G. Ottsovstvo kak faktor razvitiya lichnosti [Fatherhood as a factor of personality development]. Razvitiye lichnosti, 2006: 2: 70–81 (in Russ.). EDN: HVCLAD.
13. Vishnevsky A. G. Evolyutsiya rossiyskoy sem'i [Evolution of the Russian family]. Ekologiya i zhizn', 2008: 7: 8–13 (in Russ.). EDN: MSUMWZ.
14. Voronin G. L., Ianak A. L. Single-parent families: their types and social portrait of the lone parent. Zhenshchina v rossiyskom obshchestve, 2018: 1(86): 53–66 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.21064/WinRS.2018.1.5; EDN: YTBKXJ.
15. Vorontsova M. G. Uchastvuyut li ottsy v obespechenii detey? [Do fathers participate in providing for children?]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2003: 11: 145–148 (in Russ.).
16. Gurko T. A. (ed.) Actual problems of parenthood in Russia. Moscow, IS RAN, 2013: 209 (in Russ.).
17. Gurko T. А. Brak i roditel’stvo v Rossii [Marriage and parenthood in Russia]. Moscow, IS RАN, 2008: 325 (in Russ.).
18. Gurko T. A. Roditel'stvo v izmenyayushchikhsya sotsiokul'turnykh usloviyakh [Parenting in changing socio-cultural conditions]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1997: 1: 72–79 (in Russ.).
19. Gurko T. A. Transformatsiya instituta sem'i: postanovka problemy [Transformation of the family institute: statement of the problem]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 1995: 10: 95–99 (in Russ.).
20. Dorofeeva Z. E. Characteristics of large families life practices. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 2019: 7: 114–124 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.31857/S013216250005798-0; EDN: UEDKMA.
21. Egorova N. Yu. Roditel'sko-detskiye otnosheniya v brakakh i sozhitel'stvakh [Parent-child relationships in marriages and cohabitation]. Zhenshchina v rossiyskom obshchestve, 2008: 3: 23–30 (in Russ.). EDN: JVKCRP.
22. Egorova N. Y., Yanak A. L., Ryabinskaya E. S. Parental roles in the modern Russian family: the male boundaries. Monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya: ekonomicheskiye i sotsial'nyye peremeny, 2020: 2: 233–251 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.14515/monitoring.2020.2.782; EDN: UUHTMB.
23. Zvonareva A. E. Sotsial'nyye praktiki ottsovstva [Social practices of fatherhood]. Zhenshchina v rossiyskom obshchestve, 2010: 4: 61–68 (in Russ.).
24. Zdravomyslova E., Temkina A. (ed.) The Russian Gender Order: a Sociological approach. St. Petersburg, EU v SPb., 2007: 306 (in Russ.).
25. Ivanova E. A. I do not consider myself a good dad, at best, a normal one: how Russian men construct the image of a "good father" after divorce. Zhurnal sotsiologii i sotsial'noy antropologii, 2017: 5: 132–150 (in Russ.). EDN: ZVMKGZ.
26. Klupt M. A. Demograficheskaya povestka XXI veka: teorii i realii [Demographic agenda of the XXI century: theories and realities]. Sotsiologiya, 2011: 1: 33–44 (in Russ.). EDN: MTHAJR.
27. Kon I. S. Man in a changing world. Moscow, Vremya. 2009: 496 (in Russ.).
28. Prokofieva L., Valetas M.-F. Ottsy i ikh deti posle razvoda [Fathers and their children after divorce]. Sotsiologicheskiye issledovaniya. 2002: 6: 111–115 (in Russ.).
29. Rzhanitsina L. S. Improving the situation of children in divorced families. Sotsiologicheskiye issledovaniya, 2015: 3: 65–69 (in Russ.).
30. Rozhdestvenskaya E. Y. Ottsovstvo: liberal'nyy trend ot «ottsa» k «pape»? [Fatherhood: a liberal trend from "father" to "dad"?] Sotsiologicheskiy zhurnal, 2010: 3: 75–89 (in Russ.).
31. Rozhdestvenskaya E. Yu. Involved fatherhood, caring masculinity. Monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya: ekonomicheskiye i sotsial'nyye peremeny, 2020: 5: 155–185 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.14515/monitoring.2020.5.1676. EDN: DMPPZW.
32. Rostovskaya T. K., Egorychev A. M., Zubankova A. M. Paternity in Russia: historical and socio-cultural discourse. Sem'ya v sovremennom obshchestve. Ser. «Demografiya. Sotsiologiya. Ekonomika». Ed. by S. V. Ryazantsev, T. K. Rostovskaya. Moscow, Ekon-Inform, 2018: 137–145 (in Russ.).
33. Saralieva Z. H., Blonin V. A., Egorova N. Yu. et al. Life worlds of the modern Russian family: a monograph. Nizhny Novgorod, NNGU, 2015: 264 (in Russ.).
34. Sinelnikov A. B. Family and marriage: Crisis or modernization? Sotsiologicheskiy Zhurnal, 2018: 24: 1: 95–113 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.19181/socjour.2018.24.1.5715. EDN: YTPUEV.
35. Sinelnikov A. B. Marriage, paternity and maternity in Russian society. Sotsiologicheskiy Zhurnal, 2015: 21: 4: 132–148 (in Russ.). DOI: DOI: 10.19181/socjour.2015.21.4.3068; EDN: VDXQBF.
36. Sinelnikov A. B. Subjective reasons for divorce: research data. Vestnik Moskovskogo un-ta. Ser. 18. Sotsiologiya i politologiya, 2017: 3: 116–139 (in Russ.). EDN: ZIVXQV
37. Ushakova V. G. Who is the master in the house? St. Petersburg: SPbGU, 2011: 108 (in Russ.).
38. Ushakova V. G. Sem'ya i demografiya: gendernyy aspect [Pedagogika.Family and demography: gender aspect]. Vestnik SPbGU. Ser. 12: Psikhologiya. Sotsiologiya, 2008: 212–229 (in Russ.). EDN: KVNKSR.
39. Chernova Zh. V. Family-friendly workplace: political initiatives, employer's position and types of support for employees with family responsibilities. Zhurnal sotsiologii i antropologi, 2017: 20: 1: 93–113 (in Russ.). EDN: YOCMRP.
40. Shakhmatova N. V. Interrelations of children with their father and stepfather: a factor cross-section. In Caring Practices in Modern Society. Mat. All-Russ. scientif. conf. Saratov: Publishing house "Saratov source", 2017: 274–285 (in Russ.). EDN: ZCGOBV.
41. Shevchenko I. O. Single fathers in Russia: everyday practices and problems. Vestnik RGGU. Ser.: Filosofiya. Sotsiologiya. Iskusstvovedeniye, 2014: 4(126): 163–173 (in Russ.). EDN: SGMAYT.
42. Shevchenko I. O. Fathers and fatherhood in modern Russia: sociological analysis. Moscow, Trovant, 2019: 300 (in Russ.). EDN: MFLRYJ.
43. Shevchenko I. O. Otchim v strukture sovremennoy rossiyskoy sem'i [Stepfatherhood in the structure of the modern Russian family]. Sotsiologiya, 2011: 2: 186–192 (in Russ.). EDN: UYFFZ.
44. Shevchenko I. O. Situation after divorce: fathers and children Sotsiologicheskiye issledovaniya, 2015: 3: 70–77 (in Russ.). EDN: TQASLF.
45. Yanak A. L. Transformation of parenthood and paternity in the postmodern society. Vestnik PNIPTU. Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskiye nauki, 2018: 1: 118–126 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.15593/2224-9354/2018.1.11; EDN: YVHXDQ.
46. Yanak A. L. Paternal involvement in families of different types. Vestnik NNGU im. N.I. Lobachevskogo. Ser.: Sotsial'nyye nauki, 2018: 2(50): 124–131 (in Russ.). EDN: XWPOOD.
47. Yanak A. L. Practices of post-divorce paternity: some problems in the implementation of the parental role. Polityka i obshchestvo, 2016: 3: 369–373 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.7256/1812-8696.2016.3.13893; EDN: VROBPB.
48. Amato P. R., Sobolewski J. M. The effects of divorce and marital discord on adult children's psychologcal well-being. American Sociological Review, 2001: 66: 900–921. EDN: GSGBHL.
49. Beaton J. M., Doherty W. J., Rueter M. A. Family of origin processes and attitudes of expectant fathers. Fathering, 2003: 1: 2: 149–168. DOI: 10.3149/fth.0102.149.
50. Blankenhorn D. Fatherless America: Confronting Our Most Urgent Social Problem. New York, Harper Perennial, 1996: 328.
51. Born C., Krüger H. Vaterschaft und Väter im Kontext sozialen Wandels. Über die Notwendigkeit der Differenzierung zwischen strukturellen Gegebenheiten und kulturellen Wünschen. In Männer als Väter. Sozialwissenschaftliche Theorie und Empirie. Herausg. von W. Heinz. Gießen, Psychosozial-Verlag, 2002: 117–143.
52. Bradshaw J., Stimson C., Skinner C., Williams J. Absent Fathers? London, Routledge, 1999: 258.
53. Bürgisser M. Egalitäre Rollenteilung. Erfahrungen und Entwicklungen im Zeitverlauf. Zürich, Verlag Rüegger, 2006: 263.
54. Cabrera N., Tamis-Lemonda C., Bradley R. et al. Fatherhood in twenty-first century. Child Development, 2000: January/February: 71: 1: 127–136. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8624.00126.
55. Collier R. Men, Law and Gender: Essays on the "Man" of Law. London, Routledge, 2010: 292.
56. Coltrane S. Fathering: Paradoxes, Contradictions, and Dilemmas. In Handbook of Contemporary Families: Considering the Past, Contemplating the Future. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2004: 640.
57. Connell R. W. The state, gender and sexual politics: theory and appraisal. Theory and society, 1990: 19: 507–544.
58. Connell R. Masculinities. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995: 295.
59. Connell R. The Men and the Boys. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 2000: 268.
60. Connell R. W., Messerschmidt J. W. Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 2005: 19: 6: December: 829–859. DOI: 10.1590/S0104-026X2013000100014.
61. Day R. D., Lamb M. E. Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement: pathways, problems, and progress. In Conceptualizing and measuring father Involvement. Ed. by M. E. Lamb, R. D. Day. London, Erlbaum, 2004: 1−16.
62. Doherty W. J., Kouneski E. W., Erickson M. F. Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1998: 60(2): 277–292.
63. Father's role. Cross-cultural perspectives. Ed. by M. E. Lamb. Hillsdale NJ, Lawrence Eribaum Ass., 1985: 377.
64. Floyd K., Morman M. T. Fathers' and sons' reports of fathers' affectionate communication: Implications of a naive theory of affection. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2005: 22: 1: 99–109. DOI: 10.1177/0265407505049323.
65. Gavanas A. Fatherhood Politics in the United States: Masculinity, Sexuality, Race and Marriage. Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 2004: 221.
66. Goldberg J. S. Identity and Involvement Among Resident and Nonresident Fathers. Journal of Family Issues, 2015: 36(7): 852–879. DOI: 10.1177/0192513X13500963.
67. Hetherington E. M., Kelly J. For better or worse: Divorce reconsidered. New York, Norton, 2002: 320.
68. Hobson B., Morgan D. Introduction. In Making Men into Fathers. Men, Masculinities and the Social Politics of Fatherhood. Ed. by B. Hobson. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002: 1–21.
69. Johansson T., Andreasson J. Fatherhood in Transition: Masculinity, Identity and Everyday Life. London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2017: 238.
70. Johansson T., Klinth R. Caring Fathers: The Ideology of Gender Equality and Masculine Positions. Men and Masculinities, 2008: 11(1): 42–62. DOI: 10.1177/1097184X06291899.
71. Kalmijn M. Father-Child Relations after Divorce in Four Countries: Patterns and Determinants. Comparative Population Studies, 2015: 40(3): 251–276. DOI:10.12765/CPoS-2015-10.
72. Kimmel M. Manhood in America: A Cultural History. New York, Free press, 1996: 544.
73. Knop B., Brewster K. L. Family Flexibility in Response to Economic Conditions: Father’ Involvement in Child-Care Tasks. Journal of Marriage and Family, 2016: April: 283–292. DOI: 10.1111/jomf.12249.
74. La Rossa R. Fatherhood and Social Change. Family Relations, 1988: 37(4): 451–457.
75. Lamb M. E. Fathers and child development: an introductory interview and guide. In The Role of the Father in Child Development. Ed. by M. E. Lamb. 3d ed. New York, Wiley, 1997: 416.
76. Lamb M. E., Tamis-Lemonda C. S. The role of the father. An introduction. In The role of the father in child development. Ed. by M. E. Lamb. 4th ed. New York, Wiley, 2004: 552.
77. Lamb M. E. The role of the father in child development. Hoboken, John Wiley & Sons, 2010: 669.
78. Leira A. Parenthood change and policy reform in Scandinavia, 1970—2000s. In Politicising Parenthood in Scandinavia: Gender Relations in the Welfare State. Ed. by A. L. Ellingsaeter, A. Leira. Bristol, Policy Press, 2006: 27–51.
79. Lengersdorf D., Meuser M. Involved Fatherhood: Source of New Gender Conflicts? In Balancing Work and Family in a Changing Society. The Fathers’ Perspective. Еd. by I. Crespi, E. Ruspini. London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2016: 141–161.
80. Lewis J. The problem of fathers: policy and behavior in Britain. In Making Men into Fathers: Men, Masculinities and the Social Politics of Fatherhood. Ed. by B. Hobson. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002: 125–149.
81. MacKey W. C. American father: Biocultural and developmental aspects. New York, Plenum Press, 1996: 262.
82. Marks L., Palkovitz R. American fatherhood types: The "good", the "bad", and the "uninterested". Fathering, 2004: 2: 2: 113–129. DOI: 10.3149/fth.0202.113.
83. Marsiglio W. Contemporary Scholarship on Fatherhood: Culture, identity, and conduct. Journal of Family Issues, 1993: 14: 4: 484–509.
84. Martin R. Väter im Abseits. Mutter und Kind in der vaterlosen Gesellschaft. Stuttgart, Klett-Cotta, 1979: 169.
85. Matzner M. Vaterschaft aus der Sicht von Vätern. Wiesbaden, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2004: 481.
86. Mitscherlich A. Auf dem Weg zur vaterlosen Gesellschaft. Ideen zur Sozialpsychologie. München, Piper, 1963: 406.
87. Oláh L. S., Kotowska I. E., Richter R. The New Roles of Men and Women and Implications for Families and Societies. In A Demographic Perspective on Gender, Family and Health in Europe. Еd. by G. Doblhammer, J. Gumà. Cham, Springer, 2018: 41–64.
88. Orloff A. S., Monson R. Citizens, workers or fathers? Men in the history of the US social policy. In Making Men into Fathers: Men, Masculinities and the Social Politics of Fatherhood. Ed. by B. Hobson. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002: 61–91.
89. Orloff A. S. Gender and the social rights of citizenship: the comparative analysis of state policies and gender relations. American Sociological Review, 1993: 58(3): 303–328.
90. Ostner I. A new role for fathers: the German case. In Making Men into Fathers: Men, Masculinities and the Social Politics of Fatherhood. Ed. by B. Hobson. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002: 150–167.
91. Palkovitz R., Copes M. A., Woolfolk T. N. "It's like… You discover a new sense of being". Involved fathering as an evoker of adult development. Men and Masculinities, 2001: 4: 1: 49–69. DOI: 10.1177/1097184X01004001003.
92. Parke R. D. Fatherhood. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University, 1996: 319.
93. Parsons Т., Bales R. F. in collaboration with Olds J., Zelditch M. Jr., Slater P. Family, Socialization and Interaction Process. New York, Basic books, 1955: 422.
94. Pleck J. H. The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In A new psychology of men. Ed. by R. F. Levant, W. S. Pollack. New York, Basic Books, 1995: 581–592.
95. Pleck J. H. Paternal involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences. In Role of the father in child development. Ed. by M. E. Lamb. 3-rd ed. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997: 66–103.
96. Pleck J. The Myth of Masculinity. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1981: 229.
97. Pleck J. H. Paternal involvement: revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages with child outcomes. In The role of the father in child development. Ed. by M. E. Lamb. Hoboken, John Wiley & Sons, 2010: 58–93.
98. Pruett K. D. Fathers do not mother. In Fatherneed: Why father care is as essential as mother care for your child. New York, Broadway Books, 2001: 244.
99. Ruby S., Scholz S. Care, Care Work and the Struggle for a Careful World from the Perspective of the Sociology of Masculinitie. Österreich Z Soziol, 2018: 43: 73–83. DOI: 10.1007/s11614-018-0284-z.
100. Schneider W. Die neuen Väter. Chancen und Risiken. Zum Wandel der Vaterrolle in Familie und Gesellschaft. Augsburg, AV-Verlag, 1989: 177.
101. Seward R. R., Richter R. International research on fathering: An expanding horizon. Fathering, 2008: 6(2): 87–91. DOI: 10.3149/fth.0602.87.
102. Sigle-Rushton W., McLanahan S. Father absence and child well-being: A critical review. In The future of the family. Ed. by D. Moynihan, L. Rainwater, T. Smeeding. New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 2004: 116–155.
103. Sumer S. European Gender Regimes and Policies. Ashgate publishing group, 2009: 154.
104. Tazi-Preve M. u.a. Väter im Abseits. Zum Kontaktabbruch der Vater-Kind-Beziehung nach Scheidung und Trennung. Wiesbaden, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2007: 285.
105. Thomä D. Väter. Eine moderne Heldengeschichte. München, Hanser, 2008: 367.
106. Wallerstein J. S., Lewis J. M., Blakeslee S. The Unexpected legacy of divorce: A 25 year landmark study. San Francisco, Hyperion, 2001: 351.
107. Walter H. Das Echo der Vatersuche. In Vater, wer bist du? Auf der Suche nach dem "hinreichend" guten Vater. Herausg. von W. Heinz. Stuttgart, Klett-Cotta, 2008: 9–44.
108. Williams F. Troubled masculinities in social policy discourses: fatherhood. In Men, Gender Divisions and Welfare. Ed. by J. Popay, J. Hearn, J. Edwards. London, Routledge, 1998: 63–100.